The global interest in the "Philosophy for Children" (P4C) program has led to the implementation of numerous projects aimed at enhancing children's skills. The aim of the present study is to conduct a critical review of research on the effectiveness of P4C on the cognitive and non-cognitive skills of Iranian children. To this end, using the keywords "Philosophy for Children" and "P4C effectiveness," a search was conducted in reputable Iranian databases, including the Scientific Information Database (SID) of Jihad University, Magiran, Noor, Elmnet, and Google Scholar, and 117 studies published between 2019 and 2025 were identified. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 51 studies were selected for final review. These studies were examined using a descriptive and critical approach. The findings indicated that the P4C program has a positive effect on a wide range of cognitive and non-cognitive skills, particularly higher-order thinking, social responsibility, and moral intelligence. However, several methodological limitations were identified, such as the predominance of quasi-experimental designs, convenience sampling, lack of control for confounding variables, and insufficient attention to group matching. Furthermore, other limitations included a focus on upper primary grades, lack of gender balance, absence of follow-up periods, and inadequate assessment of facilitator qualifications. These results underscore the necessity of improving research design, employing probability sampling methods, using valid and reliable instruments, and ensuring transparency in the implementation of intervention programs in future studies.
Keywords: Philosophy for Children, effectiveness, critical review, experimental designs, intervention
Introduction
Philosophy for Children (P4C) is a global movement introduced by Lipman and Sharp in the late 1960s (Cohen, 2018). Its aim is defined in terms of encouraging children to engage in philosophical thinking and personal philosophical activity (Lipman, as cited in Fisher, 2013). The common principles of P4C include children's capacity to think in a philosophical manner, the importance of group activities, and respect for the rules of discussion (Michaud, 2020) .P4C offers a multidimensional approach to children's education that contributes to cultivating deep, flexible, and logical thinking skills (Anderson, 2020). These skills are facilitated through linguistic interactions and the establishment of communities of inquiry (Fisher, 2018). In the P4C educational program, all stages of a curriculum—including objectives, content, and the role of the facilitator—are taken into consideration. P4C sessions begin with reading a story aloud, and children explore concepts through discussion and the exchange of ideas (Fisher, 2013). P4C also classifies skills into three levels—basic, intermediate, and advanced—and emphasizes the cultivation of cognitive skills such as critical and creative thinking (Lipman, as cited in Ghaedi, 2008). The success of this program depends on the presence of capable facilitators who guide the learning process and focus on discovery learning. This shift from traditional teaching to facilitation underscores the significance of collective thinking processes in learning (Javaheri, 2020).
Materials and Methods
This study adopts a descriptive approach and is a critical review. A comprehensive search of domestic scientific databases, including SID, Magiran, Noormags, Elmnet, as well as Google Scholar, using the keywords "Philosophy for Children" and "P4C effectiveness," yielded 117 studies. The inclusion criteria for evaluation were peer-reviewed research articles employing experimental research methods, with full-text accessibility, published between 2019 and 2025 in reputable journals approved by the Ministry of Science. The exclusion criteria comprised conference papers and articles employing non-experimental methods.
Discussion & Result
A methodological examination of 51 studies related to the effectiveness of the P4C program in Iran reveals shortcomings and inconsistencies in scientific reporting that undermine the internal and external validity of these studies. Among the recurrent deficiencies is the discrepancy between the abstract and the method section, particularly regarding the research design and sampling method. The predominance of quasi-experimental designs based on convenience sampling has made controlling for confounding variables difficult and has limited generalizability, whereas true experimental designs with random sampling and mixed-methods designs have been very rare. Moreover, only one study employed Raven's Progressive Matrices for group matching, and this widespread neglect, especially in quasi-experimental designs, renders the validity of interpretations concerning the effectiveness of the intervention questionable.
The single-gender structure of Iranian schools has led to an imbalance in gender coverage, with the share of studies focused on girls being smaller. The failure to report gender in a number of articles has also compromised scientific transparency. From the perspective of age distribution, the predominant focus on upper primary grades reveals a research gap in preschool ages, lower primary grades, and secondary education—a matter that requires reconsideration given the capacity for philosophical thinking at earlier ages.
With regard to measurement instruments, most studies have contented themselves with reporting Cronbach's alpha reliability; however, the adoption of more recent indices such as McDonald's omega could enhance the precision of estimates. Furthermore, the lack of sufficient documentation regarding the content validity of interventions and the heterogeneous variation in session content have made the comparability of findings difficult and raise the question of whether the results stem from the intrinsic nature of P4C or from the specific content of each intervention. None of the studies evaluated facilitator competence, even though the quality of facilitating circles of inquiry plays a decisive role in effectiveness.
Although there is considerable evidence of the P4C program's effectiveness on cognitive and non-cognitive skills, the variation in observed effect sizes indicates that the impact of the program is neither uniform nor consistent across different dimensions. The absence of small effect sizes in the cognitive domain, compared with their presence in certain non-cognitive skills, raises the possibility that P4C exerts a more robust influence on cognitive skills, or that the research has predominantly targeted skills that demonstrate greater responsiveness to this intervention. The dispersion of effect sizes also highlights the role of contextual factors and implementation methods. Finally, the absence of long-term follow-up periods in the majority of studies has made it impossible to evaluate the durability of the intervention effects. Overall, to enhance the credibility and quality of research evidence, it is essential that future studies move toward more rigorous designs, probability sampling, matching, transparent documentation of intervention content, evaluation of facilitator competence, and long-term follow-ups, as well as a more balanced coverage in terms of gender and age groups.
Conclusion
Teaching cognitive and non-cognitive skills to children not only improves academic performance but also prepares them to face future challenges. Hence, educational systems and parents must contribute to enhancing the quality of education and children's cognitive development by providing the necessary tools and supporting relevant programs and research.