بکارگیری تفکر انتقادی در آموزش زبان انگلیسی به کودکان خردسال: مطالعه موردی بردو کودک سه ساله دوقلو

نوع مقاله : علمی-پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشجوی دکتری آموزش زبان انگلیسی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تهران شمال

2 دانشیار زبانشناسی کاربردی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تهران شمال

3 استادیار زبانشناسی کاربردی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تهران شمال

چکیده

امروزه علاوه بر یادگیری زبان دوم/خارجی، برنامه های آموزشی و درسی که مهارت های تفکر را ارتقا می بخشند، می­توانند برای کودکان، جامعه و جهان مفید باشند. این مقاله با هدف بررسی چگونگی استفاده از تفکر انتقادی در آموزش زبان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجی به کودکان خردسال انجام شد. پژوهشگران برای به تصویر کشیدن پیشرفت مهارت­های تفکر انتقادی دو کودک سه ساله دوقلو در حین یادگیری زبان خارجی ، از یک مطالعه­ کیفی موردی توصیفی در مدت یکسال و نیم استفاده کردند. بر طبق تحلیل محتوای کیفی در این تحقیق، قصه گویی و گفت­وگو و تعامل بین کودکان و مادر آن­ها، دو محور اصلی در بهره­گیری از تفکر انتقادی در آموزش زبان انگلیسی به این دو کودک خردسال بودند. بررسی کیفی یافته­ها نشان داد که اصول آموزش و یادگیری مبتنی بر نظریه اجتماعی- فرهنگی ویگوتسکی می‌تواند حتی برای زبان‌آموزان خردسال مفید و قابل اجرا باشد. با فراهم کردن محیط آموزشی غنی از حمایت و میانجی­گری مناسب بزرگسالان ماهر و با ایجاد فرصت تعامل معنادار با افراد پیرامون، کودکان می­توانند به رشد شناختی بالاتری دست یابند. یافته­های پژوهش حاضر می­تواند کمک کند تا در تبیین مدل آموزشی جدید، آموزش مهارت­های تفکر انتقادی در کلاس­های زبان انگلیسی گنجانده شود.
 

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Infusing Critical Thinking into Teaching English to Very Young Children: A Case Study of Two Three-Year-Old Twins

نویسندگان [English]

  • Zahra Ghaffari Saravi 1
  • Mojgan Rashtchi 2
  • Arshya Keyvanfar 3
1 PHD student of TEFL at North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran.
2 Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran
3 Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics at North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran.
چکیده [English]

Besides learning a second/foreign language, many educators nowadays believe that education programs and curriculums promoting thinking skills might benefit children, society, and the world. This study explored how critical thinking could be infused into teaching English to young children. Researchers employed a descriptive case study design to portray two three-year-old twins’ critical thinking skills in the early years of life (3-4/5). The findings revealed two main themes to infuse critical thinking in teaching English: the art of storytelling and conversation and interaction between the twins and their mother. Qualitative analysis of the findings showed that the principles of teaching and learning based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory could be helpful and applicable even to young language learners. By providing an educational environment that provides appropriate support and mediation by skilled adults and creating opportunities for meaningful interaction with those around them, children can achieve higher cognitive development. This research can share its findings with education communities and very young children’s teachers to promote a new professional development model for infusing critical thinking skills in very young learners’ classrooms.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • critical thinking
  • early foreign language learning
  • thinking skills
فیشر، رابرت (1389)، داستانهایی برای فکر کردن، ترجمه سید جلیل شاهری لنگرودی، تهران: انتشارات   
پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.
فیشر، رابرت (1392)، داستانهایی برای فکر کردن، ترجمة سیدجلیل شاهری لنگرودی، تهران: انتشارات قطره.
قائدی، یحیی (1395)، مبانی نظری فلسفه برای کودکا ن. تهران: انتشارات مرآت.
ناجی، سعید (1390)، کندوکاو فلسفی برای کودکان و نوجوانان، جلد اول، تهران: انتشارات پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.  
ناجی،سعید و مرعشی، منصور (1394)، »کفایت فلسفی در داستانهای فلسفه برای کودکان و نوجوانان«، دوفصلنامة تفکر و کودک، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، سال 6، شماره 1. صص120-95.
ولوی، پروانه؛ صیدی،خمیس؛ صفایی مقدم، مسعود؛ هاشمی، سید جلال (1396)، »کنوانسیون جهانی حقوق کودک و فرصت هایی که برای پرورش تفکر مستقل درکودکان ارائه می­دهد«، دوفصلنامة تفکر و کودک، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، سال 8، شماره 2. صص20-1.
هدایتی، مهرنوش؛ قائدی، یحیی؛ شفیع آبادی، عبدالله؛ یونسی، غلامرضا (1389 )، »کودکان متفکر، روابط
میانفردی مؤثر مطالعۀ تحقیقی پیرامون تأثیر «برنامه  فلسفه برای کودکان» بر ارتباطات اجتماعی کودکان«، دوفصلنامة تفکر و کودک، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، سال 1، شماره 1. صص145-125.
 
Almeida, L. S., & Franco, A. (2011). Critical thinking: Its relevance for education in a shifting society. Revista de             Psicología, 29(1), 175–195.
 
Alwadai, M. A. (2014). Islamic teachers’ perceptions of improving critical thinking skills in Saudi Arabian elementary schools. Journal of Education and Learning, 3(4), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v3n4p37
 
Anyachebelu, F. E. (2012). Teachers’ extent of use of teaching strategies that impact on the thinking skills of learners. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 2(5), 409-415. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr
 
Avargil, S., Herscovitz, O., & Dori, Y. J. (2012). Teaching thinking skills in context-based learning: Teachers’ challenges and assessment knowledge. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(2), 207–225.
 
Basturkmen, H. (2012). Review of research into the correspondence between language teachers’ stated beliefs and             practices. System, 40(2), 282–295.
 
Blanck, G. (2002). Vygotsky: The man and his cause. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 49.50). : Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher education and language education: Research and practice. London: Continuum.
 
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chapple, L., & Curtis, A. (2000). Content-based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to film. System, 28(3), 419-433. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X (00)00021-X
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education (5th Ed.). London: Routledge Falmer.
 
Cohen, A. D., & Fass, L. (2001). Oral language instruction: Teacher and learner beliefs and the reality in EFL classes    at a Colombian university. Journal of Language and Culture, 6(1-2), 43–62.
 
Considine, D. M., Haley, G. E., & Lacy, L. E. (1994). Imagine that: Developing critical thinking and critical viewing through children’s literature. Englewood: Teacher Idea Press.
 
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New Jersey: Pearson/Merrill Prentice-Hall.
Denscombe, M. (1998). The good research guide: for small scale social research projects. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
 
Education Review Office (2017). Extending their language - Expanding their world: Children’s oral language (birth - 8 years). Wellington: Education Review Office.
         
Ellis, G., & Brewster, J. (2014). Tell it again! The storytelling handbook for primary teachers (3rd Ed.). London: British Council.
 
Enever, J. (2011). ELLiE. Early language learning in Europe. London: British Council.
 
Ennis, R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. Baron & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp. 9-26). New York: Freeman.
 
Ennis, R. H. (2011). The nature of critical thinking: An outline of critical thinking dispositions            and abilities (Online). Available: http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/documents/the nature of criticalthinking_51711_000.pdf.
 
Farrell, T. S. C., & Kun, S. T. K. (2008). Language policy, language teachers’ beliefs, and classroom practices. Applied             Linguistics, 29(3), 381–403.
 
Fisher, R. (2005). Teaching children to think. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
 
Fleta, MT. (2015). Active listening for second language learning in the early years, In S. Mourão        & M. Lourenço (Eds.),  Early years second language education: International perspectives on theories and practice (pp.137-148). Abingdon:  Routledge.          
 
Fleta, MT. (2019). The applicability of picture books to teach English as a foreign language. In           E.Dominguez Romero et al. (Eds.), Teaching literature and language through multimodal texts (pp. 93-113). Pennsylvania: IGI Global.
 
Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum
 
Garrison, D. R. (2016). Thinking collaboratively: Learning in a community of inquiry. Abingdon: Routledge.
Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global practices in teaching English to young learners. ELT Research Papers, 11(1), 1-24.
 
Gashan, A. K. (2015). Exploring Saudi pre-service teachers’ knowledge of critical thinking skills and their teaching perceptions. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 3(1), 26-33.
 
Ghosn, I. K. (2013). Story bridge to second language literacy. The theory, research and practice of teaching English with children’s literature. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.
 
Goh, C., & Taib, Y. (2006). Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners. ELT Journal, 60(3), 222-232.
González, N. (2005). Beyond culture: the hybridity of funds of knowledge. In N. González, L. C.        Moll, & C. Amanti (Eds.), Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households,        communities, and classrooms (pp. 29-46). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
         
Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 
Helmling, L., & Reid, R. (2017). Unpacking picture books: Space for complexity? Early Education, 61, 14-17.
Hu, W., Adey, P., Jia, X., Liu, J., Zhang, L., Li, J., & Dong, X. (2011). Effects of a “learn to think” intervention program on primary school students. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), 531-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002007
 
Kim, S. J. (2016). Opening up spaces for early critical literacy: Korean kindergarteners exploring diversity through multicultural picture books. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 39(2), 176-187.
 
Knight, G. (2006). Student responses to critical thinking tasks in the NEMP assessments (A    National Education Monitoring Project Probe Study Report). Ministry of Education.    https://thehub.swa.govt.nz/assets/documents/42517_Student_Responses_0.pdf
 
Knobel, M. & Healy, A. (1998). Critical literacies in the primary classroom. Newtown: Primary English Teaching Association.
Kress, G. R., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The Grammar of visual design. (2nd Ed.) Abingdon: Routledge.
Lave, J. (2009). The practice of learning. In: K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning:         learning theorists ……in their own Words (pp. 200-208). Abingdon:  Routledge.
Li, L. (2015). A Confucian perspective on teaching thinking in China. In R. Wegerif, L. Li, & J. Kaufman (Eds.), Routledge handbook of researching for teaching thinking skills (pp. 45–57). Abingdon: Routledge.
Li, L., & Walsh, S. (2011). ‘Seeing is believing’: Looking at EFL teachers’ beliefs through classroom interaction.             Classroom Discourse, 2(1), 39–57.
 
Lipman, M. (1980). Philosophy in the classroom. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Lipman, M. (2003). Think in education (2nd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Luke, A. & Freebody, P. (1999a). A map of possible practices: Further notes on the four resources model. Practically Primary, 4(2), 5-8.
 
Luke, A. & Freebody, P. (1999b). Further notes on the four resources model. Reading Online. Retrieved February 12, 2006, from http://www.readingonline.org/research/lukefreebody.html
 
Machado, J. (2015). Early childhood experiences in language arts, early literacy. (11th Ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning.
 
Mattheoudakis, M. (2007). Tracking changes in pre-service EFL teacher beliefs in Greece: A longitudinal study.             Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(8), 1272–1288.
 
McGuinness, C. (2007). Building thinking skills in thinking classrooms: ACTS in Northern Ireland.109-114. Paper presented at 13th International Conference on Thinking, Norrkoping, Sweden.
 
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mok, J. (2009). From policies to realities: Developing students’ critical thinking in Hong Kong secondary school English writing class. RELC Journal, 40(3), 262–279.
Mourão, S. (2012). Picture book: Object of discovery. In J. Bland & C. Ludge (Eds).Children’s literature in second language education (pp. 71-84). London: Bloomsbury Academic.        
Papp, K. K., Huang, G. C., Lauzon Clabo, L. M., Delva, D., Fischer, M., Konopasek, L., & Gusic,      M.(2014).Milestones of critical thinking: A developmental model for medicine and nursing.          Academic Medicine, 89(5), 715–720.
             
Paul, R. C. (1992). Critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. Tomales: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Paul, R., Elder, L., & Bartell, T. (1997). California teacher preparation for instruction in critical thinking:
Research findings and policy recommendations
. (ERIC Document #437 379).
Polat, S. (2015). Content analysis of the studies in Turkey on the ability of critical thinking. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri, 15(3), 659-670. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2015.3.2658
 
Pressley, M., & Block, C. C. (2002). Summing up: what comprehension instruction could be. In C. C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 383-392). New York: Guilford Press.
Robertson, R. (2018). Teaching children to create a better world. Exchange, 8-10.
 
Santos, L. (2017). The role of critical thinking in science education. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(20), 159-173.
Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Belmont: Wadsworth.
 
Shin, K., Jung, D., & Kim, M. (2006). Critical thinking dispositions and skills of senior nursing students in associate, baccalaureate, and RN-to-BSN programs. The Journal of Nursing Education, 45(6), 233-237. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20060601-08
 
Simpson, A. (2005). Four roles of the viewer: developing an understanding of visual literacy. In          J. Young (Ed.), Conference Proceedings of the Pleasure, Passion Provocation:          AATE/ALEA National Conference (pp. 1-17). AATA, ALEA.
 
Sipe, L. R. (1998). How picture books work: A semiotically framed theory of text-picture relationships. Children’s Literature in Education, 29(2), 97–108.
         
Smidt, S. (2009). Introducing Vygotsky. UK: Routledge.
 
Smith, J. & Elley, W. (1997). How children learn to read: insights from the New Zealand experience. Boston: Addison Wesley Longman.
 
Stapleton, P. (2001). Assessing critical thinking in the writing of Japanese university students. Written Communication, 18(4), 506-548. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2016.1162560
 
Taggart, G., Ridley, K., Rudd, P., & Benefield, P. (2005). Thinking skills in the early years: A literature review. Berkshire: National Foundation for Educational Research.
 
Thomas, A., & Thorne, G. (2009). The strategies for enhancing higher-order thinking. Metairie: Center for Development and Learning.
 
Venville, G. J. (2002). Enhancing the quality of thinking in year 1 classes. In M. Shayer, M., & Adey, P. (Eds.), Learning intelligence: Cognitive acceleration across the curriculum from 5 to 15 years (pp.1–17). Buckingham: Open University Press.
 
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (pp. 29-36). New York: Freeman and Company.        
Walsh, M. (2003). Reading’ pictures: What do they reveal? Young children‘s reading of visual texts. Reading: Literacy and Language, 37(3), 123-300.
Wegerif, R., Li, L., & Kaufman, J. (2015). Introduction. In R. Wegerif, L. Li, & J. Kaufman (Eds.), Routledge handbook of researching for teaching thinking skills (pp. 1-7). Abingdon: Routledge.
Wenger, E. (2009). A social theory of learning. In K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning: Learning theorists ……in their own words (pp. 209-218). Abingdon: Routledge.
Williams, M., & Burden, R. (2010). Psychology for language teachers (15th Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University    Press.
Yin, R. K. (2011). Qualitative research from start to finish. New York: Guilford Press.
 
Yokota, J., & Teale, W. H. (2011). Materials in the school reading curriculum. In T. Rasinski (Ed.), Rebuilding the foundation: Effective reading instruction for 21st century literacy (pp. 66–87). Bloomington: Solution Tree Press.
Zahra, P., Yusooff, F., & Hasim. M. S. (2012). Effectiveness of training creativity on preschool students. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 102(2013), 643-647.