«فلسفه برای کودکان» و کنترل پرخاشگری

نوع مقاله : علمی-پژوهشی

نویسنده

دکترای تخصصی مشاوره، عضو هیئت علمی پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی

چکیده

پرخاشگری، درمیان واکنش‌های هیجانی، به‌دلیل پیامدهای فردی و اجتماعی‌اش توجه بسیاری از روان‌شناسان و جامعه‌شناسان را به خود جلب کرده است. علی‌رغم بروز برخی رفتارهای پرخاشگرانه در سال‌های اولیة تولد، کودک درطی فرایند رشد خود فرصت‌هایی برای یادگیری مهارت‌های نظارت بر هیجان و رفتار را خواهد داشت، که منجر به کنترل مناسب خشم و پرخاشگری می‌شود. بااین‌حال، بعضی از کودکان در کسب این مهارت‌ها موفق نیستند، در‌نتیجه سطوحی از پرخاشگری را در روابط میان‌فردی بروز می‌‌دهند. در کنار خانواده، مدرسه مهم‌ترین نهاد برای پرورش مهارت‌های اجتماعی کودک است. تحقیقات، دربارۀ علل پرخاشگری در کودکان، نشان داده است که ناکامی در خود‌ابرازگری، قرارگرفتن در موقعیت‌هایی که کودک دچار دوگانگی و تضاد درونی می‌شود، و فقدان کفایت در قوة استدلال می‌تواند از مهم‌ترین آن‌ها باشند. بنابراین ایجاد فضایی دوستانه و تفکربرانگیز، که در آن گوش‌دادن به سخن کودکان ارزش محسوب می‌شود و منجر به ارتقای قدرت استدلال و داوری کودک می‌شود، می‌تواند در پیشگیری از پرخاشگری بسیار کارساز باشد. مبدعان برنامة «فلسفه برای کودکان» بر این باورند که پرورش قدرت تمییز، داوری، و استدلال‌ورزی، که مبتنی بر تفکر منطقی است، باید از دوران کودکی و با شروع زندگی اجتماعی کودک آغاز شود. بدین‌ترتیب، برنامة فلسفه برای کودکان در تلاش است با ایجاد فضایی موسوم به «حلقۀ کندوکاو» فرصت تقویت قدرت استدلال و داوری را برای کودکان فراهم سازد. می‌توان انتظار داشت که هم‌زمان با تقویت تفکر استدلالی و منطقی کودک از طریق گفت‌وگوهای جمعی، بتوان پرخاشگری را در آنان مهار کرد. نتایج تحقیقات متعددی تأثیرات مثبت این برنامه بر کنترل رفتارهای پرخاشگرانه را در کودکان نشان داده است.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Philosophy for Children and Aggression Control

نویسنده [English]

  • Mehrnoosh Hedayati
چکیده [English]

Among emotional reactions, due to its individual and social consequences, aggression has attracted the attention of many psychologists and sociologists. Despite some aggressive behaviors at early years, there are some opportunities to learn self-supervising skills in a child’s growth process which lead to appropriate anger and aggression control. However, since some children fail to acquire such skills, they express some levels of aggression in their interpersonal relationships. School is the most important institution in developing children’s social skills. Research indicates that the most significant reasons for aggression include failure in self-expression, facing dilemmas and ambivalent situations, and lack of sufficient reasoning ability. Therefore, creating a friendly and thought-provoking environment in which listening to a child is considered a value can cultivate reasoning ability, promote   judgment, and foster making distinctions. The result of such an environment is hindering children from aggressive behavior. The pioneers of Philosophy for Children Program believe that improving reasoning skills derived from logical thinking should begin with a child’s social life. Hence, Philosophy for Children Program, as a reflective approach, tries to boost reasoning and judgment of children through creating a community of inquiry. Group discussions, while strengthening their reasoning and logical abilities, are expected to control their aggression. Many researchers showed positive effect of this program on control of aggression in children and adolescents

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • aggression
  • community of inquiry
  • Empathy
  • philosophy for children
فیشر، رابرت (1385). آموزش و تفکر، ترجمة فروغ کیان‌زاده، اهواز: رسش.
هدایتی، مهرنوش (1388). «بررسی تأثیر اجرای برنامة "فلسفه برای کودکان" بر بهبود روابط میان‌فردی دانش‌آموزان»، فصلنامة تازه‌های مشاوره، ش 32.
ناجی، سعید (1387). کندوکاو فلسفی برای کودکان و نوجوانان (گفت‌وگو با پیشگامان)، تهران: پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.
 
Arsenio, William F., & Elizabeth. A. Lemerise (2001). "Varieties of Childhood Bullying: Values, Emotion Processes and Social Competenc", Sociological Development, Vol. 10, No.1
Banks, Joyce (1989). "Philosophy for Children and California Achievement Test: An Analytic Study in a Midwestern Suburb", Analytic Teaching, Vol. 9, No. 2.
Batche, G. M., & H. M. Knoff. (1994). "Bullies and Their Victims: Understanding a Pervasive Problem in the Schools, School Psychology Review, Vol. 23.
Camhy, D., & G. Iberer (1988). "Philosophy for Children: A Research Project for Further Mental and Personality Development of Primary and Secondary School Pupils",. Thinking, Vol. 7, No. 4.
Cohen, E. G. (1992). "Restructuring the Classroom: Conditions for Productive Small Groups Issues", in Restructuring Schools, No. 2.
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999). "Initial Impact of the Fast Track Prevention Trial for Conduct Problems: I. The High-Risk Sample", Consulting and Clinical Psychology, No. 67.
Cotta, Sergio (2002). Why Violence? A Philosophical Interpretation, Quebec: Presses of the Laval University, coll "Dikè".
Crowhurst, M. (1988). Research Review: Patterns of Development in Writing Persuasive/ Argumentative Discourse, Vancouver: University of British Columbia, ERIC Document.
Dahlberg, L. (1998). "Youth Violence in the United States: Major Trends, Risk Factors and Prevention Approaches", American Journal of Preventive Medicine, No. 14.
Daniel, M. F. (2003). Dialoguer sur le Corps et la Violence: un pas vers la Prévention, Quebec City: Le Loup de Gouttière.
Daniel, M. F. (2005). "Learning Philosophical Dialogue in Preschool", 2e Global Conference.
Dillon, J. T. (1994). Deliberation in Education and Society, Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Eisenberg, N., & F. Fabes (1998). "Prosocial Development", in N. Eisenberg (ed.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 3, New York, Wiley.
Eisenberg, N., & J. Strayer (1987). Empathy and its Development, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Elliott, D, B. Hamburg, & K. Williams (eds.) (1998). Violence in American Schools: New Perspectives and Solutions, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, A. A., & A. Shute (2007). "Teacher Responses to Bullying in Relation to Moral Orientation and Seriousness of Bullying", British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 77, No. 3.
Endresen, I. M., & D. Olweus (2002). "Self-reported Empathy in Norwegian Adolescents: Sex Differences, Age Trends and Relationship to Bullying", in D. Stipek, & A. Bohart (eds.), Constructive and Destructive Behavior: Implications for Family, School & Society, Washington: American Psychological Association.
Englander-Golden, P., J. Jackson, K. Crane, A. Schwarzkopf, & Lyle, P. (1989). "Communication Skills and Self-Esteem in Prevention of Destructive Behavior", Adolescence, No. 24.
Espelage, D. L. & S. M. Swearer (2003). "Research on School Bullying and Victimization: What have We Learned and Where do We Go from Here", School Psychology Review, Vol. 32, No. 3.
Eron, L., & R. Huesmann (1990). "The Stability of Aggressive Behavior-Even Unto the Third Generation", in M. Lewis, & S. Miller (eds.), Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology, New York: Plenum.
Farrell, A., & A. Meyer (1997). "The Effectiveness of a School-based Curriculum for Reducing Violence Among Urban Sixth-Grade Students", American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 87.
Farrington, D. P. (1993). "Understanding and Preventing Bullying", in M. Tonry (ed.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 17, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Feshbach, N. D. (1978) "Studies of Empathic Behavior in Children", in B.A. Maher (ed.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research, New York: Academic Press.
Finn, J. D. (1998). Class Size and Students at Risk: What is Known? What is Next?, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
Flannery Daniel J., Alexander T. Vazsonyi, Albert K. Liau, & Shenyang Guo (2003). "Initial Behavior Outcomes for the PeaceBuilders Universal School-Based Violence Prevention Program", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2.
Flannery, Daniel J.& C. R. Huff (eds.) (1999), Youth Violence: Prevention, Intervention and Social Policy, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Flannery, Daniel J. (1997). School Violence: Risk, Preventive Interventions, and Policy, New York: Columbia University and ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education.
Flannery, Daniel J. (2003). "Initial Behavior Outcomes for the Peace Builders Universal School-Based Violence Prevention Program", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2.
Galloway, D.M. & E. Roland (2004). "Is the Direct Approach to Reducing Bullying Always Best?" in Smith, P.K., D. Pepler, & K Rigby (eds.), Bullying in Schools: How Successful can Interventions be?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Garrett, A. G. (2003). Bullying in American Schools, Jefferson, N.C., McFarland & Company Inc., Publishers.
Gastil, J. (1993). Democracy in Small Groups: Participation, Decision-Making and Communication, Philadelphia: New Society Publishers.
Glina, Monica B. (2009). "Democracy as Morality: Using Philosophical Dialogue to Cultivate Safe Learning Communities", Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 29, No.1
Gottfredson, D. (1997). "School Based Crime Prevention", in , L. Sherman, D. Gottfredson, D. MacKenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter, & S. Bushway (eds.), Preventing crime: What Works, What doesn’t, What’s Promising, in Report to the U.S. Congress Prepared for the National Institute of Justice, by L. Sherman, D.
Gottfredson, G. D. & D. C. Gottfredson (1985). Victimization in Schools, New York: Plenum Press.
Graham, S. & J. Juvonen (1998). "A Social Cognitive Perspective on Peer Aggression and Victimization", in R. Vasta (ed.), Annals of child development, London: Jessica Kingsley.
Greenbaum, S., B. Turner, & R. D. Stephens (1989). Set straight on bullies, Malibu, CA: Pepperdine University Press.
Greenberg, M. T., C. A. Kusche, E. T. Cook, & J. P. Quamma (1995). "Promoting Emotional Competence in School-Aged Children: The Effects of the PATHS Curriculum", Development and Psychopathology, No. 7.
Gregory, M. (2004). "Conflict, Inquiry and Education for Peace". in S. N. Chattopadhyay (ed.), World Peace: Problems of Global Understanding and Prospects of Harmony, Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice, Cambridge, U.K; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Harris, S., G. Petrie, & W. Willoughby (2002). "Bullying Among 9th Graders: An Exploratory Study", NASSP Bulletin, Vol.86, No.630.
Hawker, D. S. J. & W. Boulton (2000). "Twenty Years’ Research on Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Maladjustment: A Meta-Analytic Review of Cross-sectional studies", Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,Vol. 41, No.4.
Hawkins, J. D. (1995). "Controlling Crime before it Happens: Risk-Focused Prevention", National Institute of Justice Journal, No.229.
Hawkins, J. D., R. F. Catalano, R. Kosterman, R. Abbott, & K. G. Hill (1999). "Preventing Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior by Strengthening Protection During Childhood", Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, No. 153.
Hazler, R. (1996). Breaking the Cycle of Violence: Interventions for Bullying and Victimization. Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis Group.
Hoover, J. H., R. Oliver, & R. J. Hazler, (1992). "Bullying: Perceptions of Adolescent Victims in the Midwestern USA", School Psychology International,Vol. 13, No.1.
Horne, A. M., P. Orpinas, D. Newman-Carlson, & C. L. Bartolomucci (2004). "Elementary School Bully Busters Program: Understanding Why Children Bully and What to Do about it", In D. L. Espelage & S. M. Swearer (eds.), Bullying in American schools: A Socio-Ecological Perspective on Prevention and Intervention, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Howard, K. A., C. L. Flora, & M. Griffin, (1999). "Violence-Prevention Programs in Schools: State of the Science and Implications for Future Research", Applied & Preventive Psychology, No. 8
Huesmann, R., & J. Moise (1999). "Stability and Continuity of Aggression from Early Childhood to Yyoung Adulthood", in D. Flannery & C. R. Huff (eds.), Youth violence: Prevention, intervention and social policy, Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Huesmann, R., C. Maxwell, L. Eron, L. Dahlberg, N. Guerra, P. Tolan, R VanAcker, D Henry (1996). "Evaluating a Cognitive/Ecological Program for the Prevention of Aggression among Urban Children", American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Supplement to Vol. 12, No.5.
Jackson, T. E. (1993). "1990-1991 Evaluation Report of Philosophy for Children in Hawaii", Thinking, Vol 10, No.4.
Johnson, D. W., R. T. Johnson, & Stanne, M. B. (1989). "Impact of Goal and Resource Interdependence on Problem-Solving Success", Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 5.
Kachur, S. P., G. M. Steenes, K. E. Powell, W. Modzeleski, R. Stephens, R. Murphy, Marcie-jo Kresnow, D. Sleet, & R. Lowry (1996). "School Associated Violent Deaths in the United States, 1992 to 1994", Journal of the American Medical Association, No. 275.
Kaufman, P., X. Chen, S. P. Choy, S. A. Ruddy, A. K. Miller, J. K., Fleury, K. A. Chandler, M. R. Rand, P. Klaus, & M. G Planty (2000). Indicators of School Crime and Safety, 2000 (NCES 2001–017/NCJ-184176)", Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics and U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Lewis M. Michelson L. (1983). Children’s Emotions and Moods: Developmental Theory and Measurement, New York: Plenum.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in Education, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lochman, J. E., & K. A. Dodge (1994). "Social-Cognitive Processes of Severely Violent, Moderately Aggressive, and Nonaggressive Boys", Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, No. 62.
Loeber, R., & D. P. Farrington (1998). "Never too Early, Never too Late: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions for Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders", Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention,No. 7.
Mercy, J., & L. Potter (1996). "Combining Analysis and Action to Solve the Problem of Youth Violence", American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Supplement to, Vol. 12, No, 5.
Meyer, J. R. (1988). "A Quest of the Possible? Evaluation of the Impact of the Pixie Programme on 8-10 Year Olds", Analytic Teaching, Vol.9. No.2.
O’Donnell, J., J. D. Hawkins, R. F. Catalano, R. D. Abbott, & L. Day (1995). "Preventing School Failure, Drug Use, and Delinquency among Low-Income Children: Long-Term Intervention in Elementary Schools", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, No.65.
Olweus, D. (1991). "Bully/Victim Problems among School Children: Basic Facts and Effects of a School-Based Intervention Program", in D. J. Pepler and K. H. Rubin (eds.), The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Olweus, D. (1992). "Victimization by Peers: Antecedents and Long-Term Outcomes", in K. H. Rubin & J. B. Asendorf (eds.), Social Withdrawal, Inhibition and Shyness in Childhood, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What We Know and What We Can Do, Oxford: Blackwell.
Olweus, D. (1996). "Bully/Victim Problems at School: Facts and Effective Intervention", Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems, Vol. 5, No. 1.
Olweus, D. (2001). "Peer Harassment: A Critical Analysis and some Important Issues", in J. Juvonen & S. Graham (eds.), Peer Harassment in School: The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: Guilford Press.
Pálsson, H., B. Sigurdardottir, & Y. B. Nelson (1998). Philosophy for Children on Top of the World, Akureyri, Iceland: University of Akureyri.
Paul, R.W. (1986). "Dialogical Thinking: Critical Thought Essential to the Acquisition of Rational Knowledge and Passions", in J. B. Baron & R. J. Sternberg (eds.), Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice, New York: Freeman and Co.
Perry, D. G., S. J. Kusel, & L. C. Perry (1988). "Victims of Peer Aggression", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 6.
Powell, K., & D. Hawkins (eds.) (1996). "Youth Violence Prevention: Description and Baseline Data from 13 Evaluation Projects", American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Supplement to, Vol. 12, No.5.
Reid, J., J. M. Eddy, R. Fetrow, & M. Stoolmiller (1999). "Description and Immediate Impacts of a Preventive Intervention for Conduct Problems", American Journal of Community Psychology, No. 27.
Reznitskaya, A., R. C. Anderson, T. Dong, Y. Li, & I. Kim, (In press.). "Learning to Think Well: Application of Argument Schema Theory", in C. C. Block, P. Afflerbach & S. Parris (eds.), Comprehension Instruction: Research-Based Best Practices, New York: Guilford Press.
Rigby, K. & P. T. Slee (1999). "Australia", in P. K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, & P. Slee (eds.), The Nature of School Bullying,. London: Routledge.
Rigby, K. (1996). Bullying in School and What to Do about it, Melbourne, Victoria: The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd.
Rigby, K. (2001). "Health Consequences of Bullying and its Prevention in Schools", in J. Juvonen & S. Graham (eds.), Peer Harassment in School: The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, New York: Guilford Press.
Rigby, K. (2003). Stop the Bullying: A Handbook for Schools, Melbourne, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Rigby, K., P. K. Smith, & D. Pepler (2004). "Working to Prevent School Bullying: Key Issues", in P. K. Smith, D. Pepler, & K. Rigby (eds.), Bullying in Schools, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Roland, E. & T. Idsoe, (2001). "Aggression and Bullying", Aggressive Behavior,No. 27.
Schertz, M. (2004). "Empathic Pedagogy", (Doctoral dissertaton, Montclair State University, 2004), Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol 64, No. 247.
Shakeshaft, C., E. Barber, M. Hergenrother, Y. M. Johnson, L. S. Mandel, & J. Sawyer (1995). "Peer Harassment in Schools", Journal for a Just and Caring Education,Vol. 1.
Singer, M., & D. J. Flannery (2000). "The Rrelationship between Children’s Threats of Violence and Violent Behaviors", Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, No. 154.
Singer, M., T. M. Anglin, L. Song, & L. Lunghofer, (1995). "Adolescents’ Exposure to Violence and Associated Symptoms of Psychological Trauma", Journal of the American Medical Association, No. 273.
Singer, M., D. B. Miller, S. Guo, D. J. Flannery, T. Frierson, & K. Slovak (1999). "Contributors to Violent Behavior among Elementary and Middle School Children", Pediatrics, No. 104.
Smith, D. Pepler, & K. Rigby (eds.) (2010), Bullying in Schools: How Successful can Interventions Be?, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, J. D., B. H. Schneider, P. K. Smith, & K. Ananiadou, (2004). "The Effectiveness of Whole-School Antibullying Programs: A Synthesis of Evaluation Research", Psychology Review, Vol. 33, No.4.
Smith, P. K. & D. Thompson (1991). Practical Approaches to Bullying, London: David Fulton.
Smith, P. K., K. Ananiadou, & H. Cowie (2003) "Interventions to Reduce School Bullying", Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 48, No.9.
Snyder, H. N., & M. Sickmund (1999). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report, Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Splitter, L. & A. M. Sharp (1995). Teaching for Better Thinking: the Classroom Community of Inquiry, Melbourne: ACER.
Stein, N. L. & T. Trabasso (1982). "Children’s Understanding of Stories: A Basis for Moral Judgment and dilemma Resolution", in C.J. Brainerd & M. Pressley (eds.), Verbal Processes in Children: Progress in Cognitive Development Research, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Stone, C. & M. I. Isaacs (2002). "Involving Students in Violence Prevention: Anonymous Reporting and the Need to Promote and Protect Confidences", NASSP Bulletin, Vol.86, No.633.
Stoolmiller, M., J. M. Eddy, & J. Reid (2000). "Detecting and Describing Preventive Intervention Effects in a Universal School-based Randomized Trial Targeting Delinquent and Violent Behavior", Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology, No. 68.
Sutton, J., P. K. Smith, & J. Swettenham (1999). "Social Cognition and Bullying: Social Inadequacy or Skilled Manipulation", British Journal of Developmental Psychology, No. 17.
Thornton, T. N., C. A. Craft, L. L. Dahlberg, B. S. Lynch, & K. Baer (2000). Best Practices of Youth Violence Prevention: A Sourcebook for Community Action, Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
Tofi, M., & D. Farrington (2009). "What Works in Preventing Bullying: Effective Elements of Antibullying Program", Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Reaserch, Vol. 1, No. 1.
Tolan, P. H., & D. Gorman-Smith (1998). "Development of Serious and Violent Offending Careers", in R. Loeber & D. Farrington (eds.), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Twemlow, S. W., P. Fonagy, & F. C. Sacco (2004). "The Role of the Bystander in the Social Architecture of Bullying and Violence in Schools and Communities", Annals of the New York Academy of Science, Vol. 1036.
Unnever, J. D. & D. G. Cornell (2003). "The Culture of Bullying in Middle School", Journal of School Violence,Vol. 2.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Walker, H. M., & S. R. McConnell (1995). The Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment (SSCSA), Florence, Kentucky: Thomson Learning.
Walker, H. M., G. Colvin, & E. Ramsey (1995). Anti-Social Behavior in Schools: Strategies and Best Practices, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Whitney, I. & P. K. Smith (1993). "A Survey of the Nature and Extent of Bullying in Junior/Middle and Secondary Schools", Educational Research,Vol. 35.
Woods, S., & D. Wolke (2003). "Does the Content of Anti-Bullying Policies Inform us About the Prevalence of Direct and Relational Bullying Behavior in Primary Schools?", Educational Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 4